Add CSP, file upload, open redirect, clickjacking patterns

Complete security patterns collection (23 total):
- csp.md: nonces, hashes, strict-dynamic, reporting
- file-upload.md: content validation, path traversal, malware scanning
- open-redirect.md: URL validation, OAuth redirect URI, bypass techniques
- clickjacking.md: X-Frame-Options, frame-ancestors CSP

Comprehensive coverage for web application security review.

README.md

@@ -29,18 +29,37 @@ Based on OWASP Top 10:2025 and recent security research.
 | [jwt-security.md](jwt-security.md) | Algorithm confusion, weak secrets, expiration | A07 |
 | [session-management.md](session-management.md) | Session fixation, hijacking, secure cookies | A07 |
 
-### Attack Prevention
+### Injection & Request Attacks
 
 | File | Topic | OWASP 2025 |
 |------|-------|------------|
 | [injection-prevention.md](injection-prevention.md) | SQL, command, template, path traversal | A05 |
 | [ssrf.md](ssrf.md) | Server-side request forgery, metadata endpoints | A10 |
 | [xxe.md](xxe.md) | XML external entities, DTD attacks | A05 |
-| [dos-prevention.md](dos-prevention.md) | Rate limiting, resource bounds, algorithmic complexity | — |
-| [prompt-injection.md](prompt-injection.md) | LLM security, data/instruction separation | — |
 | [deserialization.md](deserialization.md) | Untrusted data deserialization, pickle, yaml | A08 |
-| [race-conditions.md](race-conditions.md) | TOCTOU, atomic check-and-act, database locks | — |
+| [open-redirect.md](open-redirect.md) | URL validation, OAuth redirect URI | A01 |
+
+### Client-Side Security
+
+| File | Topic | OWASP 2025 |
+|------|-------|------------|
+| [csp.md](csp.md) | Content Security Policy, nonces, hashes | A05 |
 | [cors.md](cors.md) | Origin validation, credential handling | A01 |
+| [clickjacking.md](clickjacking.md) | X-Frame-Options, frame-ancestors | A01 |
+
+### Application Logic
+
+| File | Topic | OWASP 2025 |
+|------|-------|------------|
+| [race-conditions.md](race-conditions.md) | TOCTOU, atomic check-and-act, database locks | — |
+| [dos-prevention.md](dos-prevention.md) | Rate limiting, resource bounds, algorithmic complexity | — |
+| [file-upload.md](file-upload.md) | Content validation, safe storage, malware scanning | A04 |
+
+### AI/LLM Security
+
+| File | Topic | OWASP 2025 |
+|------|-------|------------|
+| [prompt-injection.md](prompt-injection.md) | LLM security, data/instruction separation | — |
 
 ### Infrastructure
 
@@ -51,18 +70,18 @@ Based on OWASP Top 10:2025 and recent security research.
 
 ## OWASP Top 10:2025 Coverage
 
-| # | Category | Pattern |
+| # | Category | Patterns |
-|---|----------|---------|
+|---|----------|----------|
-| A01 | Broken Access Control | authorization.md, cors.md |
+| A01 | Broken Access Control | authorization, cors, clickjacking, open-redirect |
-| A02 | Security Misconfiguration | secure-defaults.md |
+| A02 | Security Misconfiguration | secure-defaults |
-| A03 | Software Supply Chain Failures | supply-chain.md |
+| A03 | Software Supply Chain Failures | supply-chain |
-| A04 | Cryptographic Failures | cryptography.md |
+| A04 | Cryptographic Failures | cryptography, file-upload |
-| A05 | Injection | injection-prevention.md, xxe.md |
+| A05 | Injection | injection-prevention, xxe, csp |
-| A06 | Insecure Design | secure-defaults.md |
+| A06 | Insecure Design | secure-defaults |
-| A07 | Authentication Failures | authentication.md, jwt-security.md, session-management.md |
+| A07 | Authentication Failures | authentication, jwt-security, session-management |
-| A08 | Software or Data Integrity Failures | deserialization.md |
+| A08 | Software or Data Integrity Failures | deserialization |
-| A09 | Security Logging and Alerting Failures | audit-logging.md |
+| A09 | Security Logging and Alerting Failures | audit-logging |
-| A10 | Mishandling of Exceptional Conditions | error-handling.md, ssrf.md |
+| A10 | Mishandling of Exceptional Conditions | error-handling, ssrf |
 
 ## Sources
 

clickjacking.md

@@ -0,0 +1,174 @@
+# Clickjacking
+
+## Rule
+
+Set X-Frame-Options or frame-ancestors CSP. Prevent your site from being embedded in attacker frames.
+
+**Source:** [OWASP Clickjacking Defense Cheat Sheet](https://cheatsheetseries.owasp.org/cheatsheets/Clickjacking_Defense_Cheat_Sheet.html)
+
+## How Clickjacking Works
+
+1. Attacker creates page with invisible iframe containing your site
+2. Attacker overlays convincing UI elements
+3. User thinks they're clicking attacker's button
+4. Actually clicking your site's button (delete, transfer, etc.)
+
+```html
+<!-- Attacker's page -->
+<style>
+  iframe {
+    opacity: 0;
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 0; left: 0;
+    width: 100%; height: 100%;
+    z-index: 2;
+  }
+  .fake-button {
+    position: absolute;
+    top: 200px; left: 300px;  /* Aligned with real button */
+    z-index: 1;
+  }
+</style>
+<div class="fake-button">Click to win a prize!</div>
+<iframe src="https://bank.com/transfer?to=attacker&amount=10000"></iframe>
+```
+
+## Correct Pattern
+
+```python
+# Option 1: X-Frame-Options header (legacy, still works)
+@app.after_request
+def add_frame_options(response):
+    response.headers["X-Frame-Options"] = "DENY"
+    # Or "SAMEORIGIN" to allow same-origin framing
+    return response
+
+# Option 2: CSP frame-ancestors (modern, more flexible)
+@app.after_request
+def add_csp(response):
+    response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = "frame-ancestors 'none'"
+    # Or "frame-ancestors 'self'" for same-origin
+    # Or "frame-ancestors 'self' https://trusted.com" for specific sites
+    return response
+
+# Option 3: Both (for browser compatibility)
+@app.after_request
+def add_framing_protection(response):
+    response.headers["X-Frame-Options"] = "DENY"
+    response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = "frame-ancestors 'none'"
+    return response
+```
+
+## Incorrect Pattern
+
+```python
+# Wrong: no framing protection at all
+# (missing headers)
+
+# Wrong: JavaScript frame-busting only
+# Can be bypassed with sandbox attribute
+"""
+<script>
+if (top !== self) {
+    top.location = self.location;
+}
+</script>
+"""
+# Bypassed by: <iframe src="bank.com" sandbox="allow-forms"></iframe>
+
+# Wrong: ALLOWALL (defeats the purpose)
+response.headers["X-Frame-Options"] = "ALLOWALL"
+
+# Wrong: checking via JavaScript after load
+# Attacker can disable JS or race the check
+```
+
+## When Framing IS Needed
+
+```python
+# If you need to allow specific partners to embed:
+
+ALLOWED_FRAME_ANCESTORS = ["https://partner1.com", "https://partner2.com"]
+
+@app.after_request
+def conditional_framing(response):
+    # Pages that should never be framed
+    if request.path.startswith("/admin") or request.path.startswith("/settings"):
+        response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = "frame-ancestors 'none'"
+    
+    # Embeddable widgets
+    elif request.path.startswith("/embed/"):
+        ancestors = " ".join(ALLOWED_FRAME_ANCESTORS)
+        response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = f"frame-ancestors {ancestors}"
+    
+    # Default: same-origin only
+    else:
+        response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = "frame-ancestors 'self'"
+    
+    return response
+```
+
+## Double-Framing Defense
+
+```python
+# Attacker might try: evil.com -> trusted.com -> your-site.com
+# frame-ancestors 'self' https://trusted.com would allow this!
+
+# Defense: Only allow direct framing
+@app.after_request
+def strict_framing(response):
+    # Check if request came from an allowed embedder
+    # Note: Referer can be spoofed, this is defense-in-depth
+    referer = request.headers.get("Referer", "")
+    
+    if is_embed_request(request):
+        if not any(referer.startswith(a) for a in ALLOWED_FRAME_ANCESTORS):
+            response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = "frame-ancestors 'none'"
+            return response
+        
+        # Also set on response so browsers enforce
+        ancestors = " ".join(ALLOWED_FRAME_ANCESTORS)
+        response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = f"frame-ancestors {ancestors}"
+    
+    return response
+```
+
+## Sensitive Actions
+
+```python
+# Clickjacking is most dangerous for state-changing actions
+# Add extra protection for these:
+
+def require_confirmation(f):
+    """Require explicit confirmation for sensitive actions."""
+    @wraps(f)
+    def decorated(*args, **kwargs):
+        # Require POST with CSRF token
+        if request.method != "POST":
+            abort(405)
+        
+        # Verify CSRF
+        if not validate_csrf_token(request.form.get("csrf_token")):
+            abort(403)
+        
+        # Optional: require re-authentication for very sensitive actions
+        # Optional: add CAPTCHA
+        
+        return f(*args, **kwargs)
+    return decorated
+
+@app.route("/account/delete", methods=["POST"])
+@require_confirmation
+def delete_account():
+    # Clickjacking can't easily bypass POST + CSRF
+    pass
+```
+
+## Edge Cases
+
+- Mobile apps using WebViews may legitimately embed your site
+- PDF embedding (`<embed>`, `<object>`) not covered by frame-ancestors
+- Legacy IE doesn't support CSP frame-ancestors, needs X-Frame-Options
+- frame-ancestors must be in HTTP header, not `<meta>` tag
+- Cursorjacking: manipulating cursor position (similar attack)
+- Likejacking: clicking social media Like buttons

csp.md

@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+# Content Security Policy (CSP)
+
+## Rule
+
+Define strict CSP to prevent XSS. Start restrictive, loosen only as needed. Never use `unsafe-inline` for scripts.
+
+**Source:** [MDN Content Security Policy](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTTP/CSP)
+
+## CSP Directives
+
+| Directive | Controls |
+|-----------|----------|
+| `default-src` | Fallback for all resource types |
+| `script-src` | JavaScript sources |
+| `style-src` | CSS sources |
+| `img-src` | Image sources |
+| `connect-src` | XHR, fetch, WebSocket |
+| `frame-src` | iframe sources |
+| `frame-ancestors` | Who can embed this page |
+| `form-action` | Form submission targets |
+| `base-uri` | `<base>` tag restrictions |
+
+## Correct Pattern
+
+```python
+# Strict CSP with nonces (recommended)
+import secrets
+
+def generate_csp_nonce() -> str:
+    return secrets.token_urlsafe(16)
+
+def get_csp_header(nonce: str) -> str:
+    """Generate strict CSP header."""
+    return "; ".join([
+        "default-src 'self'",
+        f"script-src 'nonce-{nonce}' 'strict-dynamic'",
+        "style-src 'self' 'nonce-{nonce}'",
+        "img-src 'self' data: https:",
+        "font-src 'self'",
+        "connect-src 'self' https://api.example.com",
+        "frame-ancestors 'none'",
+        "form-action 'self'",
+        "base-uri 'self'",
+        "upgrade-insecure-requests",
+    ])
+
+@app.after_request
+def add_security_headers(response):
+    nonce = generate_csp_nonce()
+    g.csp_nonce = nonce  # Make available to templates
+    response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = get_csp_header(nonce)
+    return response
+
+# In template:
+# <script nonce="{{ g.csp_nonce }}">...</script>
+```
+
+## Incorrect Pattern
+
+```python
+# Wrong: unsafe-inline allows XSS
+csp = "script-src 'self' 'unsafe-inline'"
+
+# Wrong: unsafe-eval allows eval()
+csp = "script-src 'self' 'unsafe-eval'"
+
+# Wrong: wildcard allows any source
+csp = "script-src *"
+
+# Wrong: no CSP at all
+# (missing header)
+
+# Wrong: report-only without enforcement
+# Use for testing, but deploy with enforcement
+response.headers["Content-Security-Policy-Report-Only"] = csp
+# ^ Only reports, doesn't block!
+
+# Wrong: data: in script-src
+csp = "script-src 'self' data:"
+# Attacker can inject: <script src="data:text/javascript,alert(1)">
+```
+
+## Hash-Based CSP (Alternative to Nonces)
+
+```python
+import hashlib
+import base64
+
+def script_hash(script_content: str) -> str:
+    """Generate CSP hash for inline script."""
+    digest = hashlib.sha256(script_content.encode()).digest()
+    return f"'sha256-{base64.b64encode(digest).decode()}'"
+
+# For static inline scripts that don't change:
+INLINE_SCRIPT = "console.log('hello');"
+SCRIPT_HASH = script_hash(INLINE_SCRIPT)
+
+csp = f"script-src 'self' {SCRIPT_HASH}"
+```
+
+## CSP for Single Page Apps
+
+```python
+# SPAs often need looser CSP for dynamic content
+def spa_csp(nonce: str) -> str:
+    return "; ".join([
+        "default-src 'self'",
+        # strict-dynamic allows scripts loaded by nonced scripts
+        f"script-src 'nonce-{nonce}' 'strict-dynamic'",
+        # SPAs often need blob: for web workers
+        "worker-src 'self' blob:",
+        # For inline styles from JS frameworks
+        f"style-src 'self' 'nonce-{nonce}'",
+        # API calls
+        "connect-src 'self' https://api.example.com wss://ws.example.com",
+        "frame-ancestors 'none'",
+        "base-uri 'self'",
+    ])
+```
+
+## CSP Reporting
+
+```python
+def csp_with_reporting(nonce: str) -> str:
+    """CSP with violation reporting."""
+    policy = get_csp_header(nonce)
+    # Add reporting endpoint
+    policy += "; report-uri /csp-report"
+    # Or use newer report-to directive
+    policy += "; report-to csp-endpoint"
+    return policy
+
+@app.route("/csp-report", methods=["POST"])
+def csp_report():
+    """Receive CSP violation reports."""
+    report = request.get_json(force=True)
+    log.warning("CSP violation", extra={
+        "blocked_uri": report.get("blocked-uri"),
+        "violated_directive": report.get("violated-directive"),
+        "document_uri": report.get("document-uri"),
+    })
+    return "", 204
+```
+
+## Gradual Rollout
+
+```python
+# Step 1: Report-only to find issues
+response.headers["Content-Security-Policy-Report-Only"] = strict_csp
+
+# Step 2: After fixing violations, enforce
+response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = strict_csp
+
+# Step 3: Keep report-only for new restrictions
+response.headers["Content-Security-Policy"] = current_csp
+response.headers["Content-Security-Policy-Report-Only"] = stricter_csp
+```
+
+## Edge Cases
+
+- Third-party scripts (analytics, widgets) need explicit sources
+- Inline event handlers (`onclick`) blocked by default — use addEventListener
+- `style` attribute blocked without `'unsafe-inline'` in `style-src`
+- PDF plugins may need `object-src`
+- Browser extensions can trigger CSP violations (ignore in reports)
+- `frame-ancestors` doesn't work in `<meta>` tag — must be HTTP header

file-upload.md

@@ -0,0 +1,205 @@
+# File Upload Security
+
+## Rule
+
+Validate content, not just extension. Store outside webroot. Generate new filenames. Set size limits.
+
+**Source:** [OWASP File Upload Cheat Sheet](https://cheatsheetseries.owasp.org/cheatsheets/File_Upload_Cheat_Sheet.html)
+
+## Attack Vectors
+
+| Attack | Description |
+|--------|-------------|
+| Web shell | Upload .php/.jsp that executes commands |
+| XSS via SVG | SVG with embedded JavaScript |
+| XXE via Office | DOCX/XLSX contain XML |
+| Path traversal | Filename like `../../../etc/cron.d/shell` |
+| DoS | Upload huge files, exhaust disk |
+| Malware hosting | Use your server to distribute malware |
+
+## Correct Pattern
+
+```python
+import os
+import uuid
+import magic  # python-magic for content detection
+from pathlib import Path
+
+UPLOAD_DIR = Path("/var/uploads")  # Outside webroot!
+MAX_FILE_SIZE = 10 * 1024 * 1024  # 10 MB
+ALLOWED_TYPES = {
+    "image/jpeg": ".jpg",
+    "image/png": ".png",
+    "image/gif": ".gif",
+    "application/pdf": ".pdf",
+}
+
+def save_upload(file_storage) -> str:
+    """Safely handle file upload."""
+    # Check size first (before reading into memory)
+    file_storage.seek(0, 2)  # Seek to end
+    size = file_storage.tell()
+    file_storage.seek(0)  # Reset
+    
+    if size > MAX_FILE_SIZE:
+        raise ValueError("File too large")
+    
+    # Read content for validation
+    content = file_storage.read()
+    file_storage.seek(0)
+    
+    # Detect MIME type from content, not extension
+    detected_type = magic.from_buffer(content, mime=True)
+    
+    if detected_type not in ALLOWED_TYPES:
+        raise ValueError(f"File type not allowed: {detected_type}")
+    
+    # Generate safe filename (never use user input)
+    extension = ALLOWED_TYPES[detected_type]
+    safe_filename = f"{uuid.uuid4()}{extension}"
+    
+    # Store outside webroot
+    dest_path = UPLOAD_DIR / safe_filename
+    
+    # Ensure we're still in upload dir (paranoid check)
+    if not dest_path.resolve().is_relative_to(UPLOAD_DIR.resolve()):
+        raise ValueError("Invalid path")
+    
+    with open(dest_path, "wb") as f:
+        f.write(content)
+    
+    return safe_filename
+
+def serve_upload(filename: str):
+    """Serve uploaded file safely."""
+    # Validate filename format
+    if not filename or ".." in filename or "/" in filename:
+        raise ValueError("Invalid filename")
+    
+    path = UPLOAD_DIR / filename
+    
+    # Verify path is within upload dir
+    if not path.resolve().is_relative_to(UPLOAD_DIR.resolve()):
+        raise ValueError("Invalid path")
+    
+    if not path.exists():
+        raise FileNotFoundError()
+    
+    # Serve with safe content-type
+    return send_file(
+        path,
+        mimetype="application/octet-stream",  # Force download
+        as_attachment=True,
+        download_name=filename
+    )
+```
+
+## Incorrect Pattern
+
+```python
+import os
+
+# Wrong: using user-provided filename
+def bad_upload(file):
+    filename = file.filename  # User controlled!
+    file.save(f"/uploads/{filename}")
+    # Attack: filename = "../../../var/www/shell.php"
+
+# Wrong: checking only extension
+def bad_validate(filename):
+    return filename.endswith((".jpg", ".png"))
+    # Attack: shell.php.jpg with PHP content
+
+# Wrong: storing in webroot
+def bad_upload_2(file):
+    file.save(f"/var/www/html/uploads/{file.filename}")
+    # Attacker can access directly, execute scripts
+
+# Wrong: trusting Content-Type header
+def bad_validate_2(file):
+    return file.content_type.startswith("image/")
+    # Header is attacker-controlled!
+
+# Wrong: no size limit
+def bad_upload_3(file):
+    file.save(f"/uploads/{uuid.uuid4()}")
+    # DoS: upload 100GB file
+```
+
+## Image-Specific Validation
+
+```python
+from PIL import Image
+import io
+
+MAX_IMAGE_PIXELS = 4096 * 4096  # Prevent decompression bomb
+
+def validate_image(content: bytes) -> bool:
+    """Validate image content."""
+    try:
+        Image.MAX_IMAGE_PIXELS = MAX_IMAGE_PIXELS
+        img = Image.open(io.BytesIO(content))
+        
+        # Actually load the image (validates structure)
+        img.verify()
+        
+        # Reopen for further checks (verify() invalidates)
+        img = Image.open(io.BytesIO(content))
+        
+        # Check format
+        if img.format not in ("JPEG", "PNG", "GIF"):
+            return False
+        
+        # Strip EXIF (can contain sensitive data, XSS in some viewers)
+        # PIL's save() with specific format strips most metadata
+        
+        return True
+    except Exception:
+        return False
+
+def strip_image_metadata(content: bytes) -> bytes:
+    """Remove EXIF and other metadata."""
+    img = Image.open(io.BytesIO(content))
+    
+    # Create new image without metadata
+    output = io.BytesIO()
+    img.save(output, format=img.format)
+    return output.getvalue()
+```
+
+## Antivirus Scanning
+
+```python
+import clamd  # ClamAV client
+
+def scan_for_malware(filepath: str) -> bool:
+    """Scan file with ClamAV."""
+    try:
+        cd = clamd.ClamdUnixSocket()
+        result = cd.scan(filepath)
+        
+        if result is None:
+            return True  # Clean
+        
+        # result = {filepath: ('FOUND', 'Malware.Name')}
+        status, name = result.get(filepath, (None, None))
+        if status == "FOUND":
+            log.warning("Malware detected", filepath=filepath, malware=name)
+            os.remove(filepath)
+            return False
+        
+        return True
+    except Exception as e:
+        log.error("Antivirus scan failed", error=str(e))
+        return False  # Fail closed
+```
+
+## Edge Cases
+
+- Double extensions: `file.php.jpg` may execute as PHP on misconfigured servers
+- Null byte: `file.php%00.jpg` truncates to `file.php` in some languages
+- Case sensitivity: `.PhP` may execute on Windows
+- SVG can contain JavaScript — treat as dangerous
+- ZIP files need recursive scanning for zip bombs
+- Office files (DOCX) are ZIPs containing XML — check for XXE
+- GIF89a header with PHP code can execute on some servers

open-redirect.md

@@ -0,0 +1,188 @@
+# Open Redirect
+
+## Rule
+
+Never redirect to user-controlled URLs. Validate against allowlist of destinations.
+
+**Source:** [CWE-601: URL Redirection to Untrusted Site](https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/601.html)
+
+## Why It's Dangerous
+
+- **Phishing**: Victim trusts your domain, clicks link, lands on attacker site
+- **OAuth token theft**: Redirect URI manipulation steals auth codes
+- **Credential harvesting**: Fake login page after "session expired" redirect
+- **Malware distribution**: Your domain reputation used to bypass filters
+
+## Correct Pattern
+
+```python
+from urllib.parse import urlparse, urljoin
+
+ALLOWED_HOSTS = {"example.com", "app.example.com"}
+ALLOWED_PATHS = {"/dashboard", "/profile", "/settings"}
+
+def safe_redirect(url: str, default: str = "/") -> str:
+    """Validate redirect URL, return safe destination."""
+    if not url:
+        return default
+    
+    # Parse the URL
+    parsed = urlparse(url)
+    
+    # Option 1: Only allow relative paths (safest)
+    if parsed.netloc:
+        # Has a host component - reject external URLs
+        return default
+    
+    # Ensure path doesn't escape (e.g., //evil.com)
+    if url.startswith("//"):
+        return default
+    
+    # Validate path against allowlist (if applicable)
+    if ALLOWED_PATHS and parsed.path not in ALLOWED_PATHS:
+        return default
+    
+    return url
+
+def safe_redirect_with_hosts(url: str, default: str = "/") -> str:
+    """Allow specific external hosts."""
+    if not url:
+        return default
+    
+    parsed = urlparse(url)
+    
+    # Relative URL - safe
+    if not parsed.netloc:
+        if url.startswith("//"):
+            return default
+        return url
+    
+    # External URL - check allowlist
+    if parsed.scheme not in ("http", "https"):
+        return default
+    
+    if parsed.netloc not in ALLOWED_HOSTS:
+        return default
+    
+    return url
+
+@app.route("/login")
+def login():
+    next_url = request.args.get("next", "/dashboard")
+    # ... authenticate user ...
+    return redirect(safe_redirect(next_url))
+```
+
+## Incorrect Pattern
+
+```python
+# Wrong: direct redirect from parameter
+@app.route("/redirect")
+def bad_redirect():
+    url = request.args.get("url")
+    return redirect(url)  # Attacker: ?url=https://evil.com
+
+# Wrong: checking only prefix
+def bad_validate(url):
+    return url.startswith("https://example.com")
+    # Bypassed by: https://example.com.evil.com
+
+# Wrong: checking only domain presence
+def bad_validate_2(url):
+    return "example.com" in url
+    # Bypassed by: https://evil.com/example.com
+
+# Wrong: using path join incorrectly
+def bad_redirect_2(path):
+    base = "https://example.com"
+    return redirect(urljoin(base, path))
+    # urljoin("https://example.com", "//evil.com") = "https://evil.com"
+
+# Wrong: trusting Referer header
+@app.route("/back")
+def go_back():
+    return redirect(request.referrer)  # Attacker-controlled!
+```
+
+## Bypass Techniques
+
+```python
+# Common bypass attempts to defend against:
+
+bypasses = [
+    "//evil.com",                    # Protocol-relative
+    "https://evil.com",              # Absolute URL
+    "//evil.com/example.com",        # Domain in path
+    "https://example.com@evil.com",  # Userinfo
+    "https://example.com.evil.com",  # Subdomain
+    "/\\evil.com",                   # Backslash
+    "/%09/evil.com",                 # Tab character
+    "/%0d/evil.com",                 # Carriage return
+    "https:evil.com",                # Missing slashes
+    "javascript:alert(1)",           # JavaScript URI
+    "data:text/html,<script>",       # Data URI
+    "\x00https://evil.com",          # Null byte
+]
+
+def robust_validate(url: str) -> bool:
+    """Defend against common bypasses."""
+    if not url:
+        return False
+    
+    # Normalize
+    url = url.strip()
+    
+    # Block dangerous schemes
+    lower = url.lower()
+    if any(lower.startswith(s) for s in ["javascript:", "data:", "vbscript:"]):
+        return False
+    
+    # Block protocol-relative
+    if url.startswith("//"):
+        return False
+    
+    # Block backslash tricks
+    if "\\" in url:
+        return False
+    
+    # Block whitespace in scheme
+    if any(c in url[:10] for c in "\t\r\n"):
+        return False
+    
+    # Only allow relative paths
+    parsed = urlparse(url)
+    if parsed.scheme or parsed.netloc:
+        return False
+    
+    return True
+```
+
+## OAuth Redirect URI
+
+```python
+# OAuth redirect URIs need EXACT matching
+REGISTERED_REDIRECT_URIS = {
+    "https://app.example.com/oauth/callback",
+    "https://app.example.com/auth/complete",
+}
+
+def validate_redirect_uri(uri: str) -> bool:
+    """Exact match only - no partial matching!"""
+    return uri in REGISTERED_REDIRECT_URIS
+
+# Wrong approaches:
+def bad_oauth_validate(uri):
+    return uri.startswith("https://app.example.com/")
+    # Attacker: https://app.example.com/oauth/callback/../../../evil
+    # After normalization: still under app.example.com but different path
+```
+
+## Edge Cases
+
+- URL encoding: `%2f` decoded to `/` after validation
+- Case sensitivity: `HTTPS://EXAMPLE.COM` vs `https://example.com`
+- IPv6 URLs: `http://[::1]/`
+- Port numbers: `https://example.com:443` vs `https://example.com`
+- Fragment identifiers: `#` portions not sent to server but affect client
+- Meta refresh: `<meta http-equiv="refresh" content="0;url=evil.com">`
+- JavaScript redirects: `window.location = userInput`