# Common Mistakes in Python

This file captures recurring non-idiomatic patterns, especially code that reads like Java or TypeScript in a Python costume.

## 1. Boolean-flag methods that hide two behaviors

### Smell

```python
def fetch_user(user_id: str, include_deleted: bool = False) -> User | None:
    ...
```

### Why it is a smell

Boolean mode flags often mean one function is doing two jobs. They create call sites like `fetch_user(id, True)` that say almost nothing.

### Better shape

- split into separate functions when the behaviors are meaningfully different
- or promote the difference to a real enum or config object when there are several modes

## 2. Broad `except Exception:` without a boundary reason

### Smell

```python
try:
    do_work()
except Exception:
    return None
```

### Why it is a smell

This erases recovery meaning. Mature libraries like HTTPX and Click use exception hierarchies so callers can catch broadly or narrowly depending on what they can recover from.

### Better shape

- catch the specific failures you can handle
- use broad catch points only at real process, API, or CLI boundaries
- translate internal failures into a clear outer error contract

### Source signals

- `httpx/_exceptions.py:74-90` defines `HTTPError` as a broad catch point.
- `httpx/_exceptions.py:107-160` then narrows request, transport, and timeout failures for recovery.
- `src/click/exceptions.py:35-111` ties exception subtypes to different exit codes and help output.

## 3. Hidden I/O in constructors or properties

### Smell

```python
class User:
    def __init__(self, user_id: str):
        self.profile = requests.get(...).json()
```

### Why it is a smell

Object creation now performs surprising network I/O, which makes testing, lifetime, and failure handling muddy.

### Better shape

- keep I/O in explicit factory or boundary methods
- make resource acquisition visible
- separate data containers from loading logic

## 4. Import-time side effects

### Smell

```python
client = connect_to_db()
load_config_from_network()
```

### Why it is a smell

Importing a module should usually define names, not secretly talk to the outside world. Import-time side effects make startup order brittle and tests unpredictable.

### Better shape

- move initialization into explicit startup paths
- create resources in app setup, dependency wiring, or main entrypoints

## 5. Mixing validation, transport, and business logic in one class

### Smell

```python
class OrderModel(BaseModel):
    def save(self): ...
    def send_webhook(self): ...
    def render_html(self): ...
```

### Why it is a smell

Boundary schema, persistence logic, and business behavior cannot evolve independently anymore.

### Better shape

- let Pydantic, attrs, or dataclasses own data-shape concerns
- keep boundary translation explicit
- split long-lived behavior into services or domain objects when needed

### Source signals

- `pydantic/main.py:253-264` treats model construction as input validation.
- `pydantic/main.py:455-519` makes dumping an explicit serialization step.
- `src/_pytest/timing.py:24-64` uses frozen dataclasses for small internal value objects.

## 6. Fake sync wrappers around async code

### Smell

```python
def get(url: str) -> Response:
    return asyncio.run(async_get(url))
```

### Why it is a smell

This breaks in existing event loops and hides real async lifetime and cancellation semantics.

### Better shape

- provide separate sync and async entrypoints when semantics differ
- keep them parallel, not secretly interchangeable

### Source signals

- `httpx/_client.py:594-661` and `httpx/_client.py:1307-1375` define separate `Client` and `AsyncClient` types.
- `httpx/_client.py:639-660` vs. `httpx/_client.py:1353-1374` keep the constructor shapes parallel while changing transport types.
- `examples/asyncio/async_orm.py:61-67` vs. `examples/inheritance/joined.py:93-120` show the same split in SQLAlchemy session usage.

## 7. Overuse of `Any`

### Smell

```python
def send(data: Any, options: Any) -> Any:
    ...
```

### Why it is a smell

The API contract disappeared.

### Better shape

- use concrete types when the contract is specific
- use `Protocol` when callers care about capability
- use explicit unions or aliases for ergonomic flexibility

### Source signals

- `Lib/typing.py:2132-2157` frames `Protocol` around structural subtyping.
- `Lib/typing.py:2155-2157` warns that runtime protocol checks ignore signatures.
- `httpx/_client.py:639-660` shows rich public typing instead of `Any`-shaped parameters.

## 8. Accidental public APIs through file layout

### Smell

```python
from mypkg.utils import helper_a
from mypkg.impl_v2 import thing
```

### Why it is a smell

Internal module layout becomes the public contract by accident, which makes refactors painful.

### Better shape

- publish a deliberate import surface
- re-export supported names
- use `__all__` when the boundary should be explicit

### Source signals

- `src/pytest/__init__.py:6-80` builds a top-level facade over `_pytest.*` internals.
- `src/pytest/__init__.py:98-186` pins that facade with `__all__`.
- `httpx/__init__.py:1-12` and `httpx/__init__.py:29-106` do the same while also rewriting exported objects to appear under `httpx`.

## Heuristic

If the code:

- hides resource lifetime
- hides write boundaries
- hides which failures matter
- hides what the public API really is

…it is usually fighting Python instead of using it.